Chapter 1 India And The World: Land And The People

The Himalayas

India is a large country located in Asia, ranking as the seventh-largest globally. Together with neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar, it forms the geographical region known as the Indian Subcontinent. This region is distinct from the rest of Asia due to its prominent geographical features.

Key natural boundaries of India include the massive Himalayan Mountain range in the north, the Thar Desert and the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south, with the Bay of Bengal forming the eastern boundary. These features have significantly influenced India's climate, culture, and history.

India's geography is remarkably diverse, often explored by dividing the country into five main regions: the great mountain zone (Himalayas), the vast northern plains (Ganga and Indus), the desert region, the southern peninsula (plateau and coasts), and the islands.

The Himalayas, meaning 'Abode of Snow' (from Sanskrit words 'hima' for snow and 'alaya' for abode), form a formidable natural barrier stretching for about 2500 km along India's northern border. This massive mountain range is not just a physical divide but also a source of vital resources and holds immense cultural significance.

The Himalayas contain many of the world's highest peaks, with some exceeding 8000 metres, collectively known as the 'Eight Thousanders'. These mountains span across several countries, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

The Himalayas are often referred to as the 'Water Tower of Asia'. This is because the melting snow and glaciers, particularly during summer, feed major perennial rivers of India, such as the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra, along with their numerous tributaries. These river systems are lifelines for millions of people, providing water for drinking, agriculture, and industry.

The formation of the Himalayas is a fascinating geological story. Millions of years ago, the landmass that is now India broke away from a supercontinent called 'Gondwana'. It drifted northward and collided with the Eurasian landmass. This slow but powerful collision caused the land between them to fold and uplift, creating the massive Himalayan mountain range. This process continues today, with India still pushing into Asia, causing the Himalayas to grow by a small amount (about 5 millimetres) each year.

The Himalayas are also deeply ingrained in cultural and spiritual traditions. The mountains themselves are considered sacred in many belief systems, and numerous temples and monasteries are located within the range, serving as centres for prayer and meditation.

The Himalayan range is broadly divided into three parallel sub-ranges, each with distinct characteristics:

Himadri (The Greater Himalayas)

This is the southernmost, highest, and most rugged range of the Himalayas. It is home to the world's tallest peaks, including Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga. The Himadri range remains covered in snow throughout the year, making human settlement very sparse due to the harsh living conditions.

Himachal (The Lower Himalayas)

Located south of the Himadri, this range has a more moderate climate compared to the higher peaks. The pleasant climate and terrain support richer biodiversity and are more conducive to human habitation. Many famous hill stations and tourist destinations like Nainital, Darjeeling, Shimla, and Mussoorie are situated in the Himachal range.

Shivalik Hills (The Outer Himalayas)

The Shivaliks are the outermost and lowest range of the Himalayas, forming foothills. They consist of rolling hills and dense forests, serving as a transitional zone towards the plains. These foothills are important habitats for wildlife.

Traditional house construction methods in the Western Himalayas, like 'kath-kuni' or 'dhajji-dewari', utilize local stone and wood. These houses are designed to stay warm and offer some resistance to mild earthquakes, showcasing adaptation to the mountain environment.

The Cold Desert Of India

While deserts are often associated with heat, India also has a significant cold desert region in Ladakh. Located in the Himalayas, Ladakh experiences extremely low winter temperatures, often dropping below -30°C. It receives very little rainfall, making it arid.

The landscape of Ladakh is rugged and unique, characterized by rocky terrain, deep valleys, and high-altitude lakes. The terrain, particularly in some areas known as 'moonland', is described as resembling the surface of the moon. Geologically, this landscape is a result of the immense folding of the Earth's crust during the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, which involved material that was once part of an ocean floor, explaining the presence of sand and clay in the rocks. Wind and limited rainfall have further eroded these formations into distinctive shapes.

Despite the harsh climate, Ladakh supports unique wildlife, including snow leopards, ibex, and Tibetan antelopes. The local people have adapted to these conditions, leading a simple life. The region is also known for its ancient Buddhist monasteries and vibrant festivals like Losar and the Hemis Festival.

High-altitude lakes like Pangong Tso in Ladakh are a prominent feature. Unlike many lakes, Pangong Tso has saline water due to minerals dissolving from the surrounding mountains.

Animals like yaks are essential to the life of people in the higher Himalayas and Ladakh, providing milk, meat, wool, dung (for fuel), and serving as a mode of transport.

The Gangetic Plains

Moving south from the Himalayan mountain ranges, we encounter the extensive and highly fertile Gangetic Plains, also known as the Northern Plains. This vast region is historically and culturally significant in India.

The Gangetic Plains are irrigated and nourished by the major river systems originating in the Himalayas: the Ganga, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra, along with their vast network of tributaries. These rivers carry fertile sediment (alluvium) from the mountains and deposit it across the plains, making the soil exceptionally rich and ideal for agriculture. The availability of abundant water resources and fertile land has made this region the most densely populated in India.

The flat topography of the Northern Plains has facilitated the development of an extensive and efficient transportation network, including roads and railways. This network enables easy movement of people and goods over long distances, supporting economic activities and connectivity across the region. Historically, the rivers themselves, particularly the Ganga and Brahmaputra, have served as important waterways for travel and trade for millennia.

Agriculture is the primary occupation in the Gangetic Plains, supported by the fertile soil and river water. Modern agricultural practices are common, leading to high productivity. Key crops include rice, wheat, and various other grains and vegetables.

The plains are also home to diverse flora and fauna, including iconic species like the tiger (whose conservation is supported by initiatives like Project Tiger), peacocks, and langurs.

Most rivers in India are named after goddesses (Ganga, Yamuna, Kaveri). The Brahmaputra is an exception, meaning 'son of Brahma'. It is unique in that it swells with water during the summer, unlike rivers that might dry up, due to snowmelt and monsoon rains in its upper catchment.

The Great Indian Desert Or Thar Desert

Located to the west of the Gangetic Plains is the Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert. It is a vast arid region, characterized by extensive stretches of sand dunes, rocky terrain, and very little vegetation.

Most of the Thar Desert lies within India, covering parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. It receives extremely low rainfall, resulting in harsh environmental conditions, including very high temperatures during the day and significantly colder temperatures at night.

The desert's harsh climate and terrain act as a natural barrier, limiting movement and interaction. Sand dunes are prominent features, formed by wind shaping the sand into hill-like structures that can reach considerable heights.

Despite the challenging environment, people have lived in the Thar Desert for centuries, adapting their lifestyle, food habits, and clothing to suit the local conditions and available resources. Cities like Jaisalmer, known as the 'Golden City', are located within the desert and are testaments to human resilience and adaptation. The Jaisalmer fort is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Water scarcity is a major challenge in the Thar. Traditional practices highlight resourcefulness, such as cleaning utensils with sand to conserve water. Communities in Rajasthan have also developed ingenious traditional water conservation methods, like taanka or kunds, which are structures designed to collect and store rainwater, often for drinking purposes.

Camels are vital animals in the Thar Desert, adapted to the arid conditions and used for transport and other purposes.

The Aravalli Hills

To the east of the Thar Desert lies the Aravalli Range, one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world, estimated to be around 2.5 billion years old. The Aravallis span parts of Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

Although the range includes some higher peaks like Mount Abu (over 1700m), most of the Aravalli hills are lower, typically between 300 and 900 metres in height. The range consists of numerous peaks and ridges, showing signs of extensive erosion over geological time.

The Aravallis play a critical geographical and climatic role in northwestern India, primarily acting as a natural barrier that helps prevent the eastward expansion of the Thar Desert. It influences rainfall patterns in the region.

The Aravalli region is rich in various minerals, including marble, granite, zinc, and copper. This has supported mining and construction activities for centuries. Historically, ancient mines in the Aravallis, such as those at Zawar, provide evidence that Indians mastered the complex process of zinc extraction over 800 years ago, making them pioneers in this field.

The strategic terrain of the Aravallis led to the construction of many historic forts within the hills, such as Chittorgarh, Kumbhalgarh, and Ranthambore. These forts benefited from the natural elevation and rugged landscape as defensive features.

The Peninsular Plateau

India's geography also features significant plateau regions. The most prominent is the large Peninsular Plateau, which covers the central and southern parts of the country. This landform is triangular in shape and is one of the oldest geological formations in India.

The term "peninsula" refers to a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides. The Indian Peninsular Plateau is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Bay of Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south.

The Peninsular Plateau is flanked by two mountain ranges:

• The Western Ghats: Located along the western coast, these are taller and more continuous, forming a distinct wall-like structure. They are known for their steep western slopes and numerous waterfalls, particularly during the monsoon season. The northern part of the Western Ghats is also called the Sahyadri Hills. The Western Ghats are recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their rich biodiversity.
• The Eastern Ghats: Located along the eastern coast, these are lower and less continuous, broken into smaller hills by rivers flowing through them.

Between the Western and Eastern Ghats lies the vast Deccan Plateau, a high, relatively flat area that is part of the larger Peninsular Plateau. The plateau generally tilts eastward, influencing the direction of river flow for many major rivers.

Rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri originate in the Western Ghats or on the plateau and flow eastward across the plateau before draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers are crucial for agriculture and provide water to millions of people. Some west-flowing rivers, like the Narmada and Tapti, also originate in this region and flow into the Arabian Sea.

The Peninsular Plateau is economically important due to its wealth of minerals, extensive forests, and areas of fertile land (especially lava plateaus with black soil). Mining of minerals like coal is a significant activity here. Waterfalls on the plateau are not only scenic attractions but also sources of hydroelectric power and irrigation.

The dense forests of the plateau region are home to various tribal communities, including the Santhal, Gond, Baiga, Bhil, and Korku. These communities have unique cultures, languages, and lifestyles that are deeply connected to the natural environment of the forest and plateau.

India’s Amazing Coastlines

India has a long coastline, stretching over 7500 km, marked by diverse features including beaches, cliffs, and forests. This coastal stretch along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal is another significant geographical region.

The West Coast Of India

The West Coast extends along the western side of the Peninsular Plateau, from Gujarat in the north down to Kerala in the south, passing through Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. This coastal plain is relatively narrower compared to the east coast. Rivers originating in the nearby Western Ghats are generally short and swift, flowing westward into the Arabian Sea.

The West Coast is characterized by features such as estuaries (where rivers meet the sea), coves, and creeks, formed by alluvial deposits from these rivers. The estuaries of the Narmada and Tapti rivers are among the largest. The west coast has historically been important for maritime trade and connectivity, with numerous significant ports and cities, including Mumbai, which serves as India's financial centre.

The East Coast

The East Coast lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, stretching from the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the north down to Kanyakumari in the south. This coastal plain is generally wider than the west coast.

The East Coast is marked by major river deltas formed by large rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, which flow eastward from the Peninsular Plateau into the Bay of Bengal. Deltas are fertile triangular landforms created at river mouths by the deposition of sediments. These deltaic regions are highly fertile and support extensive agriculture.

Important water bodies like the Chilika Lake and Pulicat Lake (both lagoons, which are bodies of water separated from larger ones by natural barriers like sandbars) are found along the East Coast.

Indian Islands

India's territory also includes several groups of islands located in the surrounding waters of the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. These islands contribute to India's geographical diversity and strategic presence in the region.

India has two principal island groups:

Lakshadweep Islands

Lakshadweep is an archipelago (a group of islands) situated in the Arabian Sea, off the coast of Kerala. It consists of 36 islands, predominantly formed by coral. Not all islands are inhabited. Lakshadweep's coral reefs are unique ecosystems with rich marine life.

India's control over the waters around Lakshadweep gives it jurisdiction over a vast marine area important for fishing, resource exploration, and environmental protection.

Andaman And Nicobar Islands

This archipelago is located in the Bay of Bengal and comprises over 500 islands, which are mainly of volcanic origin. The islands are divided into the Andaman group and the Nicobar group. Their location is strategically important, serving as India's outposts in the Bay of Bengal, monitoring the surrounding oceanic region.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are known for their dense forests and diverse flora and fauna. They also have historical significance, particularly the Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands, which served as a prison during the British Raj and held many Indian freedom fighters. Barren Island in the Andamans is notable for being the only active volcano in India, with occasional eruptions.

These islands have been home to ancient indigenous tribes for tens of thousands of years, who maintain unique cultures adapted to the island environment.

The Delta In West Bengal And The Sundarbans

As the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, along with their tributaries, flow towards the Bay of Bengal, they form the world's largest delta. A significant portion of this delta, located in West Bengal, India, is known as the Sundarbans.

The Sundarbans is a unique environment where freshwater from the rivers mixes with saline water from the sea. It is characterized by tidal waterways and a distinct type of forest called mangroves, which are adapted to grow in brackish water conditions.

About half of the Sundarbans is located in India, with the other half in Bangladesh. This region is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its unique ecosystem and rich biodiversity. It is famously home to the Royal Bengal Tiger, adapted to live in this challenging mangrove habitat, as well as many other species of plants and animals.

The Hills Of The Northeast

Moving to the northeastern part of India, we find a region characterized by picturesque hills and lush landscapes. The Hills of the Northeast, including ranges like the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills (part of the Meghalaya Plateau), are known for their dense greenery, high rainfall, and numerous waterfalls.

This region receives some of the highest rainfall in the world, contributing to fertile land and supporting rich forests and unique wildlife. The environment has fostered unique cultural practices and adaptations among the people living here.

One remarkable example of adaptation is the creation of living root bridges by weaving the roots of trees over many years, showcasing the ingenuity and close relationship between the local tribes and their environment.

Villages in the Northeast, like Mawlynnong in Meghalaya (known as the 'cleanest village in Asia'), are examples of communities maintaining high standards of cleanliness and adopting eco-friendly practices, reflecting a strong civic sense and connection to nature.

Overall, India's geographical diversity, encompassing mountains, plains, deserts, plateaus, coastlines, islands, and deltas, creates a wide range of environmental conditions that influence soil types, vegetation, animal life, economic activities, and cultural practices across the country. This rich geographical tapestry has been fundamental in shaping the unique character of Indian civilization.